sx/specs.md

sx language specification

1. Lexical Structure

Comments

Line comments start with // and extend to end of line.

// this is a comment

Identifiers

• Lowercase or mixed-case for variables, functions: x, compute, main
• UPPER_SNAKE_CASE for constants: SOME_INT, SOME_STR
• PascalCase for types: Foo

Literals

Kind	Examples	Type
Integer	0, 42, 0xFF, 0b1010	s64
Float	0.3, 0.9	f32
String	"Hello", "z: {z}"	string (may span multiple lines)
Heredoc String	#string END...END	string
Boolean	true, false	bool
Enum	.variant1	inferred from context
Undefined	---	context-dependent

String literals support escape sequences (\n, \t, \r, \\, \", \0) and may span multiple lines directly:

shader_src := "#version 330 core
void main() {
    gl_Position = vec4(0.0);
}
";

Heredoc strings use #string DELIMITER syntax (inspired by Jai). Content is completely raw — no escape processing. The delimiter is any identifier. Content starts after the newline following the delimiter and ends when the delimiter appears at column 0 of a line.

vert_src := #string GLSL
#version 330 core
void main() {
    gl_Position = vec4(aPos, 1.0);
}
GLSL;

Keywords

if, else, then, while, for, break, continue, true, false, enum, struct, union, case, return, defer, push, ufcs, in, xx, and, or

Note: enum is used for both payload-less and payload-bearing sum types (tagged unions). union is reserved for C-style untagged unions (memory overlays).

Operators

Operator	Meaning
+	addition
-	subtraction / negation
*	multiplication
/	division
==	equality
!=	inequality
<	less than
>	greater than
<=	less or equal
>=	greater or equal
&	bitwise AND
|	bitwise OR
^	bitwise XOR
~	bitwise NOT (unary)
<<	left shift
>>	right shift (arithmetic for signed, logical for unsigned)
and	logical AND (short-circuit)
or	logical OR (short-circuit)
in	membership test (tuples)
|>	pipe (function application)
+=	add-assign
-=	sub-assign
*=	mul-assign
/=	div-assign
&=	bitwise AND assign
|=	bitwise OR assign
^=	bitwise XOR assign
<<=	left shift assign
>>=	right shift assign

Delimiters and Punctuation

Token	Meaning
::	constant binding / definition
:=	variable binding (mutable, inferred)
:	type annotation
=	assignment (in typed var decl)
;	statement terminator
,	separator
.	field access / enum literal prefix
->	return type annotation
=>	lambda arrow
$	generic type parameter introduction
---	undefined value
()	grouping / params
{}	blocks / bodies

---

2. Type System

Primitive Types

• s1..s64 — signed integers (1 to 64 bits). s64 is the default for integer literals.
• u1..u64 — unsigned integers (1 to 64 bits).
• f32 — 32-bit floating point
• f64 — 64-bit floating point
• bool — boolean (true / false)
• string — string of characters
• Any — type-erased value, represented as { i64, i64 } (type tag + payload). Used for variadic arguments and runtime type dispatch.
• Type — compile-time type value. At runtime, represented as an i64 type tag (same tag space as Any).

Enum Types

User-defined sum types with named variants. Variants may optionally carry typed data (tagged unions). Internally, payload-less enums are represented as i64 (variant index). Enums with payloads are represented as { i64, [max_payload_size x i8] } (tag + data).

Declaration

// Payload-less enum
Color :: enum {
  red;
  green;
  blue;
}

// Enum with payloads (tagged union)
Shape :: enum {
    circle: f32;    // typed variant
    rect: s32;      // typed variant
    none;           // void variant
}

Variants are referenced with dot-prefix syntax: .variant1

Construction

c := Color.red;                  // payload-less
s :Shape = .circle(3.14);       // inferred from context
s = .none;                       // void variant
s = Shape.rect(42);              // explicit prefix

Payload Access

r := s.circle;   // load payload as f32 (undefined behavior if wrong variant active)

Pattern Matching

if s == {
    case .circle: print("circle\n");
    case .rect: print("rect\n");
    case .none: print("none\n");
}

Payload Capture

Match arms can capture the variant's payload into a local variable:

if s == {
    case .circle: (radius) { print("radius: {}\n", radius); }
    case .rect: (size) => print("size: {}\n", size);
}

The (name) after the colon binds the payload. Two forms:

• Block: case .variant: (name) { body }
• Short: case .variant: (name) => expr;

Enum Interpolation

Payload-less enums print as .variant. Enums with payloads print as .variant(value) or <TypeName tag=N>:

print("{}", s);  // .circle(3.140000)

Union Types (Untagged)

C-style untagged unions for zero-cost memory overlays (type punning). All fields share the same memory — no tag, no runtime overhead. The LLVM representation is [max_field_size x i8].

Declaration

Overlay :: union {
    f: f32;
    i: s32;
}

All fields must have types (unlike enums, which may have void variants).

Anonymous Struct Fields (Member Promotion)

Anonymous struct fields inside a union have their members promoted to the union namespace:

Vec2 :: union {
    data: [2]f32;
    struct { x, y: f32; };
}

Access promoted members directly: v.x, v.y — these are zero-cost GEPs into the same underlying memory as v.data[0], v.data[1].

Initialization

Unions must be initialized with --- (undefined) and then assigned per-field:

o :Overlay = ---;
o.f = 3.14;
print("{}\n", o.i);  // reinterpret bits as s32

Restrictions

• Pattern matching (if x == { case ... }) is not supported on unions.
• Unions cannot be printed directly via print("{}", union_val) — access individual fields instead.

Struct Types

User-defined product types with named fields.

Vec4 :: struct {
  x, y, z, w: f32;
}

Fields are declared as name1, name2: type; (comma-separated names sharing a type, semicolon-terminated).

Field Defaults

Fields may have default values. Fields without an explicit default have a zero-value default. --- marks a field as explicitly undefined.

Foo :: struct {
  a : u2;          // default is 0
  b : u8 = 42;     // default is 42
  c : u8 = ---;    // default is undefined
}

Struct Literals

// Positional (with type annotation — type inferred from annotation)
v1 : Vec4 = .{ 1, 2, 3, 0 };

// Positional (with type prefix)
v2 := Vec4.{ 4, 1, 1, 3 };

// Named fields (any order)
v3 := Vec4.{ w=0, x=2, y=3, z=4 };

// Mixed named + shorthand (bare identifier = field name matches variable name)
z := 5.0;
w := 6.0;
v4 := Vec4.{ y=3, x=9, w, z };

Field Access and Assignment

v1.x        // read field x of struct v1
v1.x = 3.0; // assign to field x of struct v1

#using — Struct Composition

#using StructName; inside a struct declaration embeds all fields from StructName at that position. The embedded fields are accessed directly, as if declared inline.

UBase :: struct { x: s32; y: s32; }
UExt :: struct { #using UBase; z: s32; }
e := UExt.{ x = 1, y = 2, z = 3 };
print("{}\n", e.x);  // 1

#using may appear at any field position (beginning, middle, end) and multiple #using entries are allowed:

UPos :: struct { px: s32; py: s32; }
UCol :: struct { r: s32; g: s32; }
USprite :: struct { #using UPos; #using UCol; scale: s32; }
s := USprite.{ px = 10, py = 20, r = 255, g = 128, scale = 1 };

The referenced struct must be declared before use. This is purely a compile-time field expansion — no runtime overhead.

Struct Interpolation

Struct values in string interpolation print as TypeName{field:value, ...}:

print("{}", v1);  // Vec4{x:1.0, y:2.0, z:3.0, w:0.0}

Tuple Types

Anonymous product types with optional field names. Tuples are first-class values — they can be stored in variables, passed to functions, and returned.

Construction

pair := (40, 2);              // positional tuple: (s64, s64)
named := (x: 10, y: 20);     // named tuple: (x: s64, y: s64)
single := (42,);              // 1-tuple (trailing comma in value position)
zeroed : (s32, s32) = ---;    // zero-initialized tuple

Note: In value position, (expr) without a comma is a grouping expression, not a tuple. Use (expr,) for a 1-tuple value.

Type Syntax

In type position, (T) is always a tuple type — no trailing comma needed. The -> arrow disambiguates function types from tuple types:

(s64)            // tuple type with one field
(s64, s64)       // tuple type with two fields
(s64) -> s64     // function type: takes s64, returns s64
(s64, s64) -> s64  // function type: takes two s64, returns s64

Field Access

pair.0;      // 40 — numeric index
pair.1;      // 2
named.x;     // 10 — named field
named.0;     // 10 — numeric index also works on named tuples

As Return Type

swap :: (a: s64, b: s64) -> (s64, s64) { (b, a); }
wrap :: (x: s64) -> (s64) { (x,); }

s := swap(1, 2);  // s.0 = 2, s.1 = 1
t := wrap(42);    // t.0 = 42

Representation

Tuples are represented as anonymous LLVM struct types (same layout as named structs). A tuple (s64, s64) has LLVM type { i64, i64 }.

Tuple Operators

Equality and inequality — element-wise comparison, both sides must have the same field count:

(1, 2) == (1, 2)   // true
(1, 2) != (1, 3)   // true

Concatenation (+) — creates a new tuple with fields from both sides:

c := (1, 2) + (3, 4);   // c : (s64, s64, s64, s64)
c.0;                     // 1
c.3;                     // 4

Repetition (*) — repeats a tuple N times (N must be a compile-time integer literal):

r := (1, 2) * 3;   // r : (s64, s64, s64, s64, s64, s64)
r.0;                // 1
r.5;                // 2

Lexicographic comparison (<, <=, >, >=) — compares element-by-element left to right:

(1, 2) < (1, 3)    // true  (first fields equal, 2 < 3)
(2, 0) > (1, 9)    // true  (2 > 1, rest ignored)
(1, 2) <= (1, 2)   // true  (all equal, <= allows tie)

Membership (in) — checks if a value exists in a tuple:

3 in (1, 2, 3)     // true
5 in (1, 2, 3)     // false

Array Types

Fixed-size arrays with element type and length.

buffer : [5]f32 = .[0, 2, 3.5, 4, 0];
val := buffer[2];  // 3.5
buffer.len         // 5 (compile-time constant, s64)

Arrays can also be constructed programmatically with the Array builtin:

MyArr :: Array(5, s32);   // equivalent to [5]s32

Slice Types

A slice []T is a fat pointer {ptr, i64} referencing a contiguous sequence of T elements. Same runtime layout as string.

// Arrays implicitly coerce to slices at call sites
arr : [5]s32 = .[3, 1, 4, 1, 5];
sortSlice(arr);   // [5]s32 → []s32 coercion

// Slice operations
items[i]           // read element at index
items[i] = val;    // write element at index
items.len          // length (s64)
items.ptr          // raw pointer

Slices support generic type parameters: []$T introduces type parameter T inferred from the element type of the argument (array or slice).

Subslicing

Arrays, slices, and strings support subslice syntax to create zero-copy views:

arr : [5]s32 = .[3, 1, 4, 1, 5];
sub := arr[1..4];    // []s32 → [1, 4, 1]
head := arr[..3];    // []s32 → [3, 1, 4]
tail := arr[2..];    // []s32 → [4, 1, 5]

msg := "hello world";
word := msg[6..11];  // string → "world"

• expr[start..end] — elements from start (inclusive) to end (exclusive)
• expr[start..] — elements from start to end
• expr[..end] — elements from beginning to end
• Result type: []T for arrays/slices, string for strings
• No memory allocation — the result points into the original backing storage

Pointer Types

Syntax	Meaning	.len	[i]
*T	pointer to one T	no	no
[*]T	many-pointer (buffer)	no	yes
*[N]T	pointer to array of N T	yes	yes
*[]T	pointer to slice	yes	yes

Address-of: @x returns a pointer to the variable.

v := Vec2.{ 1.0, 2.0 };
ptr := @v;             // *Vec2

Dereference: p.* loads the value through the pointer.

copy := ptr.*;          // Vec2

Auto-deref: p.field is sugar for p.*.field.

set_x :: (p: *Vec2, val: f32) {
    p.x = val;          // auto-deref: p.*.x = val
}
set_x(@v, 99.0);

Null: Pointer types are currently nullable by default. null is the null pointer literal.

np : *Vec2 = null;

Many-pointer: [*]T supports indexing for buffers of unknown size.

arr : [5]s32 = .[10, 20, 30, 40, 50];
mp : [*]s32 = @arr[0];   // *s32 → [*]s32 implicit
val := mp[2];             // 30

Implicit conversions:

• *T → [*]T (pointer to element → many-pointer)
• *[N]T → [*]T (pointer to array → many-pointer)
• [N]T → [*]T at call sites (array decays to many-pointer)
• []T → [*]T (slice decays to many-pointer, extracts .ptr)
• T → *T at call sites (implicit address-of)
• null (*void) → any *T

Fat pointer layout: [:0]u8, string, and []T are {ptr, i64} structs. The raw pointer is always the first field at offset 0. This means *[:0]u8 works as C's char** — a C function dereferences through the outer pointer and reads the raw char* from offset 0.

Optional Types

Optional types represent values that may or may not be present.

Type Syntax

x: ?s32 = 42;        // optional s32, has value
y: ?s32 = null;      // optional s32, no value

Any type T can be made optional: ?s32, ?string, ?Point, ?*T, ?[]T.

LLVM Representation

• Non-pointer optionals (?s32, ?Point): { T, i1 } struct — payload + has_value flag
• Pointer optionals (?*T): bare pointer — null represents absence

Implicit Wrapping

A value of type T implicitly converts to ?T:

wrap :: (n: s32) -> ?s32 {
    if n > 0 { return n; }    // s32 → ?s32 (wraps)
    return null;               // null → ?s32
}

Force Unwrap (!)

Extracts the payload, traps at runtime if null:

x: ?s32 = 42;
val := x!;             // val : s32 = 42

Null Coalescing (??)

Returns the payload if present, otherwise evaluates the right-hand side:

x: ?s32 = 42;
y: ?s32 = null;
a := x ?? 0;           // 42
b := y ?? 99;          // 99

Safe Unwrap (if val := expr)

Binds the payload to a variable if present:

x: ?s32 = 42;
if val := x {
    print("{}\n", val);     // val : s32 = 42
} else {
    print("none\n");
}

While-Optional Binding

while val := get_next() {
    // val is the unwrapped value
}

Pattern Matching

Optionals support .some and .none virtual enum variants:

result := if opt == {
    case .some: (val) { val * 2; }
    case .none: { 0; }
};

Optional Chaining (?.)

Short-circuits field access on optionals:

x: ?Point = Point.{ x = 1, y = 2 };
y: ?Point = null;
a := x?.x ?? 0;       // 1
b := y?.x ?? 0;       // 0

Result type of x?.field is always ?FieldType.

Flow-Sensitive Narrowing

The compiler narrows ?T to T in control flow branches:

x: ?s32 = 42;
if x != null {
    print("{}\n", x);       // x is s32 here (narrowed)
}
if x == null { return; }
print("{}\n", x);           // x is s32 here (guard narrowing)

Compound conditions:

if a != null and b != null {
    // both a and b are narrowed to their inner types
}
if a == null or b == null { return; }
// both a and b are narrowed after the guard

Reassignment kills narrowing.

Struct Field Defaults

Optional fields in structs default to null:

Node :: struct { value: s32; next: ?s32; }
n := Node.{ value = 10 };    // n.next is null

Printing

print("{}", opt) prints the payload value if present, or "null".

Comptime

Optionals work in #run blocks — ??, !, if val :=, null checks all supported.

Foreign Function Interface (C Interop)

To call C functions, declare a library constant with #library and bind functions with #foreign:

// Declare a named library constant
libc :: #library "c";
sdl  :: #library "SDL3";

// Bind foreign functions — library ref is required
socket :: (domain: s32, type: s32, protocol: s32) -> s32 #foreign libc;
SDL_Init :: (flags: u32) -> bool #foreign sdl;

// Symbol renaming — optional second argument gives the C symbol name
write_fd :: (fd: s32, buf: [*]u8, count: u64) -> s64 #foreign libc "write";

• #library "name" must be assigned to a named constant. The library is passed to the linker (-lname on Unix, name.lib on Windows).
• #foreign lib_ref declares a function as external C. The library reference is mandatory.
• #foreign lib_ref "c_symbol" renames the binding: the sx function name differs from the C symbol. This avoids name collisions (e.g. POSIX write vs an sx builtin).

C Interop Type Mapping

C type	sx type	Notes
const char* (input)	[:0]u8	compiler extracts .ptr at call site
char* (output buffer)	[*]u8	raw buffer, no length
const char**	*[:0]u8	address of [:0]u8 — .ptr at offset 0
int* (single out)	*s32
unsigned* (single out)	*u32
float* (buffer)	[*]f32
void* (generic)	*void	only for truly opaque/generic data

Vector Types (SIMD)

LLVM SIMD vectors, parameterized by length and element type.

v := vec3(1, 3, 2);  // Vector(3, f32)

Arithmetic: Element-wise +, -, *, / on vectors of same dimensions.

add := v1 + v2;     // element-wise addition

Scalar broadcast: Scalar operands are broadcast to match the vector.

scaled := v * 2.0;  // [2.0, 6.0, 4.0]

Negation: Unary - negates each element.

neg := -v;           // [-1.0, -3.0, -2.0]

Element access: .x, .y, .z, .w (aliases .r, .g, .b, .a) extract single components.

v.x     // first element
v.z     // third element

Index access: v[i] extracts by index.

v[0]    // first element

Built-in sqrt: Calls LLVM llvm.sqrt.f32/.f64 intrinsic.

s := sqrt(9.0);     // 3.0

Function Types

Expressed as (param_types) -> return_type. A function with no return type annotation returns void.

// type is (s32) -> s32
compute :: (x: s32) -> s32 { x * x; }

// type is () -> void
main :: () { }

Type Aliases

A name bound to an existing type.

SOME_TYPE :: f64;

Generic Functions (Monomorphization)

Functions can be parameterized over types using $T syntax. The $ prefix introduces a type parameter; subsequent uses of the name reference it.

sum :: (a: $T, b: T) -> T {
    return a + b;
}

• $T in a parameter type introduces type parameter T
• Bare T (without $) references the introduced type parameter
• At call sites, type arguments are inferred from actual argument types:

  sum(40, 2)       // T = s32
  sum(1.5, 2.5)    // T = f32
  

• Each unique set of concrete types produces a separate specialized function (monomorphization)
• Multiple type parameters are supported: (a: $T, b: $U) -> T

Variadic Functions

Functions can accept a variable number of arguments using ..Type syntax:

print :: (fmt: string, args: ..Any) { ... }

• ..Any means zero or more arguments, each boxed into Any (type tag + payload)
• The variadic parameter must be the last parameter
• At call sites, variadic arguments are automatically boxed: print("x={}, y={}\n", x, y)
• Inside the function body, args is accessed as a slice-like sequence

Type Inference

• :: bindings infer type from the right-hand side
• := bindings infer type from the right-hand side
• Explicit annotation overrides inference: NAME : f64 : 0.9;
• Integer literals default to s64
• Float literals default to f32
• Enum literals (.variant) infer their enum type from context (expected type)

Type Conversions

Implicit (widening) — allowed without annotation:

• Integer to wider integer of same signedness (u8 → u16, s8 → s32)
• Unsigned to strictly wider signed (u8 → s16)
• Any integer to any float (u8 → f32, s32 → f64)
• Float to wider float (f32 → f64)
• Integer and float literals can convert to any numeric type implicitly

Explicit (narrowing) — requires xx prefix:

• Integer to narrower integer (s32 → u8)
• Signed to unsigned (s32 → u32)
• Float to narrower float (f64 → f32)
• Float to any integer (f64 → u16)
• Unsigned to signed of same or narrower width (u8 → s8)

The xx prefix operator marks an expression for auto-conversion to the expected type from context (assignment, declaration, argument, return):

large: f64 = 5999.5;
x : u16 = xx large;       // f64 → u16
d : u8 = #run xx resolve(5); // s32 → u8 at compile time

Using xx outside a typed context (where the target type is known) is a compile error.

---

3. Declarations

Constant Binding (immutable)

// inferred type
NAME :: value;

// explicit type
NAME : type : value;

The :: operator creates an immutable binding. The value is evaluated at compile time when possible.

Examples:

SOME_INT    :: 0;           // s32
SOME_STR    :: "Hello";     // string
SOME_FLOAT  :: 0.3;         // f32
SOME_DOUBLE : f64 : 0.9;   // f64 (explicit)
SOME_FUNC   :: () => 42;    // () -> s32
SOME_TYPE   :: f64;         // type alias

Variable Binding (mutable)

// inferred type
name := value;

// explicit type
name : type = value;

// default-initialized (type required)
name : type;

// undefined (type required)
name : type = ---;

The := operator creates a mutable binding. The type is inferred unless explicitly annotated.

name : type; initializes using the type's defaults: zero for primitives, per-field defaults for structs (see Field Defaults).

name : type = ---; leaves the value undefined (uninitialized memory). Reading before writing is undefined behavior.

Examples:

x := 42;              // s32, mutable
x := if true then 1 else 2;
z : Foo = .variant2;  // Foo, mutable, explicit type
a : Foo;              // Foo, default-initialized (a=0, b=42, c=undef)
b : Foo = ---;        // Foo, entirely undefined

Function Definition

name :: (params) -> return_type {
  body
}

• Parameters: name: type separated by commas
• Return type: -> type (omit for void)
• Body: block of statements; last expression is the implicit return value
• No return keyword needed (last expression = return value)

Examples:

compute :: (x: s32) -> s32 {
  x * x;
}

main :: () {
  // void return, no -> annotation
}

// Bare-block shorthand (equivalent to no-arg void function):
main :: {
  // same as main :: () { ... }
}

Enum Definition

Name :: enum {
  variant1;
  variant2;
}

Defines a new enum type with the given variants. Trailing comma is allowed.

Enum Backing Type

An optional backing type can be specified after the enum keyword (Jai-style):

Color :: enum u8 { red; green; blue; }
Status :: enum s16 { ok; error; timeout; }

Syntax: Name :: enum [flags] [type] { ... }

The backing type must be an integer type (u8, u16, u32, s8, s16, s32, s64, etc.). When omitted, the default is s64. This is useful for C interop (matching C enum sizes) and memory efficiency.

Enum Layout Struct

For C interop with tagged unions (e.g. SDL_Event), a struct can be used as the backing type to specify the exact memory layout:

// Inline layout
SDL_Event :: enum struct { tag: u32; _: u32; payload: [30]u32; } {
    quit :: 0x100;
    key_down :: 0x300: SDL_KeyData;
    key_up :: 0x301: SDL_KeyData;
}

// Named layout
EventLayout :: struct { tag: u32; _: u32; payload: [30]u32; }
SDL_Event :: enum EventLayout {
    quit :: 0x100;
    key_down :: 0x300: SDL_KeyData;
}

The layout struct must have:

• A field named tag — integer type, the discriminant. Its type becomes the enum's backing type.
• A field named payload — array type, the variant data area. Its size determines the maximum payload capacity.
• Any other fields are treated as padding/reserved and positioned by the struct layout.

This gives explicit control over the memory layout instead of relying on automatic alignment. The total size equals the struct size. Without a layout struct, tagged enums use { tag, [max_payload_size x i8] } with no padding.

Enum Flags

Perms :: enum flags {
    read;       // 1
    write;      // 2
    execute;    // 4
}

Flags can also specify a backing type:

SDL_InitFlags :: enum flags u32 {
    video :: 0x20;
    audio :: 0x10;
}

The flags modifier assigns auto power-of-2 values (1, 2, 4, 8, ...) instead of sequential indices (0, 1, 2, ...). Flags can be combined with | and tested with &:

p :Perms = .read | .write;
if p & .execute { ... }
print("{}\n", p);   // .read | .write

Explicit values use :: syntax (Jai-style):

WindowFlags :: enum flags {
    vsync     :: 64;
    resizable :: 4;
    hidden    :: 128;
}

Restrictions:

• Flags enum variants cannot have payloads
• flags is a contextual identifier, not a keyword

Bitwise Operators

All bitwise operators work on integer types. >> is arithmetic (sign-extending) for signed types and logical (zero-filling) for unsigned types.

x := 0xFF & 0x0F;   // 15  — AND
y := 1 | 2 | 4;     // 7   — OR
z := 0xFF ^ 0x0F;   // 240 — XOR
w := ~0;             // -1  — NOT
a := 1 << 4;         // 16  — left shift
b := 256 >> 4;       // 16  — right shift

Compound assignment forms: &=, |=, ^=, <<=, >>=.

x := 0xFF;
x &= 0x0F;   // 15
x |= 0xF0;   // 255
x ^= 0x0F;   // 240
y := 1;
y <<= 8;     // 256
y >>= 4;     // 16

---

4. Expressions

Everything in sx is expression-oriented where possible.

Operator Precedence

Prec	Operators	Notes
9 (highest)	*, /, %	multiplication, division, modulo
8	+, -	addition, subtraction
7	<<, >>	shifts
6	<, <=, >, >=, ==, !=	comparisons (chainable)
5	&	bitwise AND
4	^	bitwise XOR
3	|	bitwise OR
2	and	logical AND (short-circuit)
1 (lowest)	or	logical OR (short-circuit)

Arithmetic

Standard infix: +, -, *, / with usual precedence (*// before +/-).

x * x
x + 2

Chained Comparisons

Comparison operators can be chained. Each operand is evaluated exactly once.

0 <= x <= 100          // equivalent to: 0 <= x and x <= 100
1000 > x >= -100       // equivalent to: 1000 > x and x >= -100
a == b == c            // equivalent to: a == b and b == c

Mixed operators are allowed: a < b <= c > d means a < b and b <= c and c > d.

Logical Operators

and and or are short-circuit boolean operators. The right operand is not evaluated if the left operand determines the result.

if 0 <= x <= 100 and 0 <= y <= 100 {
    print("contained");
}

If Expression (inline form)

if condition then consequent else alternate

Both branches are single expressions. The whole form produces a value.

x := if true then 1 else 2;

The else branch is optional. Without it, the form is a statement (no value):

if i == 2 then continue;
if done then break;
if err then return;

If Expression (block form)

if condition {
  stmts
} else {
  stmts
}

Each branch is a block. The last expression in each block is the branch's value. Can be used inline within other expressions:

y := x + if false {
  7;
} else {
  12;
};

Pattern Matching

if subject == {
  case pattern: body
  case pattern: body
  else: body          // optional default arm
}

Matches subject against each case. Patterns can be:

• Enum literals: .variant — matches a specific enum variant.
• Integer/bool literals: 42, true — matches a specific value.
• Type categories: struct, enum, union — matches all types in that category (used with type_of values).

break exits a case arm without producing a value. The optional else: arm matches when no case pattern matches.

if z == {
  case .variant1: break;
  case .variant2:
    print("z: {z}");
  else:
    print("unknown");
}

Type Category Matching

When switching on a Type value (from type_of), category keywords match all registered types of that category:

type := type_of(val);
if type == {
    case int: result = int_to_string(xx val);
    case struct: result = struct_to_string(cast(type) val);
    case enum: result = enum_to_string(cast(type) val);
}

Available categories: int, float, bool, string, struct, enum, vector, array, slice, pointer, type.

Note: case enum: matches both payload-less enums and tagged enums (enums with payloads). C-style untagged unions are not registered with the Any type system and cannot be matched by category.

Inside a category arm, cast(type) val performs runtime generic dispatch: the compiler generates a switch over all types in the category, monomorphizing the callee for each concrete type.

While Loop

while condition {
  body
}

Repeats body as long as condition is true. break; exits the loop. continue; skips to the next iteration.

i := 0;
while i < 10 {
    i += 1;
    if i == 5 { continue; }
    if i == 8 { break; }
    print("{i}\n");
}

For Loop

for iterable: (elem) { }            // element alias (no copy)
for iterable: (elem, ix) { }        // element + index
for iterable: (_, ix) { }           // index only

Iterates over arrays and slices. The capture clause after : binds loop variables:

• The first name is the element capture (non-reassignable alias into the array/slice)
• The optional second name is the index (s64, starting at 0, also non-reassignable)
• Use _ to discard a capture

The element capture is a direct alias — reads and field writes go to the original array element. Direct reassignment of the capture (elem = x) is a compile error.

break; exits the loop. continue; skips to the next iteration.

arr : [5]s32 = .[1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
for arr: (val, ix) {
    if ix == 2 { continue; }
    print("{}\n", val);
}

Lambda

(params) => expr
(params) -> return_type => expr

Anonymous function. Produces a function value. Supports the same parameter features as named functions: $ generic type params, .. variadic params, and optional return type annotation.

SOME_FUNC :: () => 42;                    // () -> s32
double :: (x: $T) -> T => x + x;         // generic lambda with return type

Closures

A closure is a function bundled with captured state. It is represented as a fat pointer { fn_ptr, env } (16 bytes), unlike a bare function pointer which is 8 bytes.

Closure Type

Closure(param_types) -> R     // e.g. Closure(s32, s32) -> s32
Closure(param_types)          // void return: Closure(s64) -> void
?Closure(s32) -> s32          // optional closure (null = none)

Creating Closures — closure() intrinsic

offset := 50;
f := closure((x: s32) -> s32 => x + offset);  // expression body
g := closure((x: s32) -> s32 {                 // block body
    if x < 0 { return 0; }
    return x + offset;
});

The closure() intrinsic:

1. Analyzes the lambda body for free variables (variables from outer scope)
2. Allocates an env struct on the heap (via malloc) containing captured values
3. Generates a trampoline function with signature (env: *void, params...) -> R
4. Returns a Closure value { trampoline, env_ptr }

Capture semantics: capture by value (snapshot at creation time). Mutating the original variable after creating the closure does not affect the captured value.

n := 10;
f := closure((x: s64) -> s64 => x + n);
n = 999;
print("{}\n", f(5));  // 15, not 1004

Calling Closures

Closures are called with normal function call syntax:

result := f(10);

The compiler prepends the env pointer to the argument list and does an indirect call through the fn_ptr.

Auto-Promotion

A bare function can be implicitly promoted to a Closure where one is expected. The compiler generates a static thunk that ignores the env parameter, with a null env pointer.

double :: (x: s32) -> s32 { return x * 2; }
apply :: (f: Closure(s32) -> s32, x: s32) -> s32 { return f(x); }
apply(double, 10);  // double auto-promoted to Closure

Factory Functions

Functions can return closures, enabling the factory pattern:

make_adder :: (n: s32) -> Closure(s32) -> s32 {
    return closure((x: s32) -> s32 => x + n);
}
add5 := make_adder(5);
print("{}\n", add5(100));  // 105

Optional Closures

?Closure is supported for nullable callbacks. Uses fn_ptr == null as the none sentinel (zero overhead — same layout as Closure).

Button :: struct {
    label: string;
    on_click: ?Closure(s64) -> void;
}
btn := Button.{ label = "OK", on_click = null };
if handler := btn.on_click {
    handler(1);
}

Memory

Closure env is heap-allocated via malloc. The caller is responsible for freeing closure.env when the closure is no longer needed. Auto-promoted closures have a null env and require no freeing.

Function Call

callee(args)

compute(6)
print("hello")

UFCS (Uniform Function Call Syntax)

object.func(args)    // equivalent to func(object, args)

When object.func(args) is encountered and func is not a field of object's type, the compiler rewrites the call to func(object, args). This enables method-like syntax without dedicated method declarations.

Point :: struct { x: s32; y: s32; }
point_sum :: (p: Point) -> s32 { p.x + p.y; }

p := Point.{3, 4};
print("{}\n", p.point_sum());  // calls point_sum(p) → 7

UFCS works with pointer receivers (auto-deref applies) and generic functions. If the field name exists as both a struct field and a free function, the struct field takes priority.

UFCS Aliases

The ufcs keyword creates a name alias for a function, decoupling the method name from the function name:

arena_alloc :: (arena: *Arena, size: s64) -> *void { ... }
alloc :: ufcs arena_alloc;

myArena.alloc(42);        // calls arena_alloc(myArena, 42)
alloc(myArena, 42);       // also works as a direct call

This avoids the naming redundancy of myArena.arena_alloc(42).

Tuple UFCS Splatting

When a tuple is used as the receiver of a UFCS call, its elements are unpacked as leading arguments:

num_add :: (a: s64, b: s64) -> s64 { a + b; }
add :: ufcs num_add;

(40, 2).add();            // splats to num_add(40, 2) → 42
(40,).add(2);             // partial: num_add(40, 2) → 42
40.add(2);                // normal UFCS: num_add(40, 2) → 42

With more arguments:

compute :: (a: s64, b: s64, c: s64, d: s64) -> s64 { a + b * c - d; }
calc :: ufcs compute;

(1, 2, 3, 4).calc();     // full splat → compute(1, 2, 3, 4)
(1, 2).calc(3, 4);       // partial splat → compute(1, 2, 3, 4)
1.calc(2, 3, 4);          // normal UFCS → compute(1, 2, 3, 4)

Pipe Operator

The pipe operator |> inserts the left-hand side as the first argument of the right-hand side call. It is desugared at parse time.

a |> f(b, c)        // → f(a, b, c)
a |> f              // → f(a)
a |> f(b) |> g(c)   // → g(f(a, b), c)

The pipe is left-associative with the lowest precedence of all binary operators, so expressions like x + 1 |> f(2) are parsed as f(x + 1, 2).

This is especially useful with namespaced imports:

pkg :: #import "modules/math";

3 |> pkg.add(4)                    // → pkg.add(3, 4) → 7
3 |> pkg.add(4) |> pkg.mul(2)     // → pkg.mul(pkg.add(3, 4), 2) → 14

Field Access

object.field

Used for module access (std.print) and struct member access.

Enum Literal

.variant_name

The enum type is inferred from context (expected type from declaration or parameter).

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5. Statements

Statements are terminated by ;.

• Declaration: name :: value; / name := value;
• Assignment: name = value; / name += value; (and other compound assignments). Also supports field targets: obj.field = value;
• Multi-target assignment: a, b = b, a; — all RHS values are evaluated before any stores, enabling swaps without temporaries. Target count must equal value count. Only plain = is supported (no compound operators). Each target must be a valid lvalue (variable, field, index, dereference).
• Expression statement: expr; — evaluates the expression (last in a block = return value)
• Return: return expr; — returns from the enclosing function with the given value. return; returns void.
• Break: break; — exits a match arm or while loop
• Continue: continue; — skips to the next iteration of a while loop
• Defer: defer expr; — defers execution of expr until the enclosing block exits (LIFO order)
• Push: push expr { body } — scoped context override (see below)

push Statement and Implicit context

The push statement temporarily overrides a global context variable for the duration of a block. The previous context is saved before the block and restored after it exits.

push Context.{ allocator = arena.allocator(), data = xx @logger } {
    handle(client);   // inside here, `context` has the new value
}
// context is restored to its previous value here

Context struct — defined in std.sx:

Context :: struct {
    allocator: Allocator;  // active allocator for dynamic allocation
    data: *void;           // opaque pointer for application-specific data
}
context : Context = ---;   // global mutable variable

Inside the pushed block, any code (including called functions) can read context.allocator and context.data. The standard library's cstring() and alloc_slice() functions use context.allocator for allocation when its .ctx is non-null, falling back to malloc() otherwise.

push requires a global mutable variable named context to be in scope (provided by std.sx).

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6. Blocks, Scoping, and Implicit Returns

A block { ... } contains zero or more statements. The last expression in a block is its value (implicit return).

In function bodies, the last expression becomes the return value:

compute :: (x: s32) -> s32 {
  x * x;   // this is returned
}

Scope Blocks

Bare blocks can be used as statements to introduce a new lexical scope. Variables declared inside a scope block are local to that block. No trailing ; is required.

main :: {
  x := 42;
  {
    x := 6;                        // shadows outer x
    print("inner: {x}"); // prints 6
  }
  print("outer: {x}");   // prints 42
}

Variable Shadowing

A variable declaration (name :=) inside an inner scope shadows any variable with the same name from outer scopes. The outer variable is restored when the inner scope exits.

Defer

defer expr; schedules expr to execute when the enclosing scope block exits. Multiple defers in the same scope execute in reverse order (LIFO).

{
  defer print("second");
  defer print("first");
}
// prints: first, then second

---

7. Built-in Functions

Built-in functions are declared in std.sx with the #builtin suffix, which tells the compiler to generate the implementation internally rather than looking for a function body.

I/O

• out(str: string) -> void — write a string to standard output
• print(fmt: string, args: ..Any) — formatted print. Parses {} placeholders in the format string and substitutes arguments. When all argument types are statically known, the compiler specializes the call at compile time (no Any boxing).

Math

• sqrt(x: $T) -> T — square root (maps to LLVM intrinsic)
• sin(x: $T) -> T — sine (maps to LLVM intrinsic)
• cos(x: $T) -> T — cosine (maps to LLVM intrinsic)

Memory

• malloc(size: s64) -> *void — allocate size bytes of heap memory
• free(ptr: *void) -> void — free previously allocated memory
• memcpy(dst: *void, src: *void, size: s64) -> *void — copy size bytes from src to dst
• memset(dst: *void, val: s64, size: s64) -> void — fill size bytes at dst with val
• size_of($T: Type) -> s64 — size of type T in bytes

Type Introspection

• type_of(val: $T) -> Type — returns the runtime type tag of a value
• type_name($T: Type) -> string — returns the name of type T as a string (e.g., "Point")
• field_count($T: Type) -> s64 — returns the number of fields (struct), variants (enum), or elements (vector) in type T
• field_name($T: Type, idx: s64) -> string — returns the name of the idx-th field (struct) or variant (enum) of type T
• field_value(s: $T, idx: s64) -> Any — returns the idx-th field (struct) or element (vector) of s, boxed as Any
• field_value_int($T: Type, idx: s64) -> s64 — returns the integer value of the idx-th enum variant
• field_index($T: Type, val: T) -> s64 — returns the sequential variant index for an explicit enum value (reverse of field_value_int). Returns -1 if no variant matches.
• is_flags($T: Type) -> bool — returns true if T is a flags enum (declared with #flags)

Type Conversion

• cast(Type) expr — prefix operator that converts expr to Type. Examples: cast(s32) 3.14, cast(f64) n. When Type is a runtime Type value inside a type-category match arm, the compiler generates a dispatch switch over all types in the category, monomorphizing the callee for each concrete type.

Vectors

• Vector($N: int, $T: Type) -> Type — returns an LLVM vector type of N elements of type T

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8. Compile-time Evaluation

#run Directive

#run expr evaluates expr at compile time using lazy JIT execution. It can appear in two contexts:

Compile-time constants — bind a compile-time value to a name:

compute :: (x: s32) -> s32 { x * x; }
x :: #run compute(5);   // x = 25, evaluated at compile time

Comptime globals are resolved lazily: the JIT executes only when the value is first referenced during code generation. Chained dependencies are resolved automatically.

Side effects — execute code at compile time for its side effects:

#run print("compiling...");

#insert Directive

#insert expr; evaluates expr at compile time to obtain a string, then parses and compiles that string as inline code at the insertion point.

generate :: () -> string {
    return "print(\"hello from the other side\");";
}

main :: () {
    #insert #run generate();
    // equivalent to: print("hello from the other side");
}

The inserted string must contain valid sx statements (including semicolons). The statements are parsed and compiled in the same scope as the #insert site. Variables created by one #insert are visible to subsequent #insert directives in the same function.

Comptime Call Evaluation

When a :: constant binding is initialized with a function call and all arguments are comptime-known (literals or other :: constants), the compiler attempts to evaluate the entire call at compile time using the bytecode VM. If evaluation succeeds, the result is baked into the binary as a static constant with zero runtime overhead.

body :: "<html><body><h1>Hello</h1></body></html>";
response :: format("HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\nContent-Length: {}\r\n\r\n{}", body.len, body);
// response is a static string constant — no runtime allocation

This works for any function, not just format. The mechanism is general: the VM compiles the function body (including #insert directives, variadic ..Any args, and calls to other functions) and executes it entirely at compile time. If the VM encounters something it cannot evaluate (e.g., foreign function calls, unsupported operations), it silently falls through to runtime codegen.

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9. Modules / Imports

#import Directive

The #import directive brings declarations from another .sx file or directory into the current file. Paths are resolved relative to the importing file's directory.

Flat import — splices all declarations from the imported file into the current scope:

#import "modules/std/math.sx";

Namespaced import — wraps all declarations under a namespace name:

std :: #import "modules/std.sx";

Directory import — when the path refers to a directory, all .sx files in that directory are aggregated into a single module:

pkg :: #import "modules/testpkg";   // namespaced — all .sx files merged under pkg
#import "modules/testpkg";          // flat — all declarations spliced into scope

Directory imports scan only the top level of the specified directory (non-recursive). Files are processed in alphabetical order for deterministic builds. Files within the directory may #import each other or external files.

Namespaced declarations are accessed with dot notation:

std.print("hello");

Import Resolution

• Imports are resolved after parsing and before code generation.
• Paths are relative to the directory of the file containing the #import.
• If the path resolves to a file, it is imported directly. If it resolves to a directory, all .sx files in that directory are aggregated.
• Nested imports are supported (imported files may themselves contain #import).
• Circular imports are detected and silently skipped (each file is imported at most once).
• Generic functions in namespaced imports are supported (e.g., std.mul(5, 2) where mul is generic).

Intra-module References

Functions within a namespaced import can call each other without the namespace prefix. When generating code for a namespaced module, unresolved function names are automatically tried with the namespace prefix.

Example

// modules/std/math.sx
mul :: (base: $T, exp: T) -> T { base * exp; }

// modules/std/std.sx
out :: (str: string) -> void #builtin;

// main.sx
std :: #import "modules/std.sx";
#import "modules/std/math.sx";

main :: () -> s32 {
    std.out("hello there");
    mul(5, 2);
}

---

10. Program Structure

A program is a sequence of top-level declarations and #import directives. Execution begins at main.

main :: () {
  // entry point
}

main takes no arguments and returns void. The process exit code is 0 unless otherwise specified.

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11. Grammar (informal)

program         = top_level*
top_level       = decl | import_decl
import_decl     = '#import' STRING ';'
                | IDENT '::' '#import' STRING ';'
decl            = const_decl | var_decl | fn_decl | enum_decl | struct_decl
const_decl      = IDENT '::' expr ';'
                | IDENT ':' type ':' expr ';'
var_decl        = IDENT ':=' expr ';'
                | IDENT ':' type '=' expr ';'
                | IDENT ':' type ';'
fn_decl         = IDENT '::' '(' params? ')' ('->' type)? block
                | IDENT '::' block
enum_decl       = IDENT '::' 'enum' '{' (IDENT ';')* '}'
struct_decl     = IDENT '::' 'struct' '{' struct_member* '}'
struct_member   = field_group | '#using' IDENT ';'
field_group     = IDENT (',' IDENT)* ':' type ('=' expr)? ';'
params          = param (',' param)*
param           = IDENT ':' type
block           = '{' stmt* '}'
stmt            = decl | assignment ';' | multi_assign ';' | return_stmt | defer_stmt | insert_stmt
                | push_stmt | break_stmt | continue_stmt | expr ';'
return_stmt     = 'return' expr? ';'
break_stmt      = 'break' ';'
continue_stmt   = 'continue' ';'
defer_stmt      = 'defer' expr ';'
insert_stmt     = '#insert' expr ';'
push_stmt       = 'push' expr block
assignment      = lvalue ('=' | '+=' | '-=' | '*=' | '/=') expr
multi_assign    = lvalue (',' lvalue)+ '=' expr (',' expr)+
lvalue          = IDENT | postfix '.' IDENT
expr            = if_expr | match_expr | while_expr | for_expr | lambda | binary
while_expr      = 'while' expr block
for_expr        = 'for' expr ':' '(' IDENT [',' IDENT] ')' block
binary          = unary (binop unary)*
unary           = ('-' | '!' | 'xx' | 'cast' '(' type ')') postfix
                | postfix
postfix         = primary ('(' args? ')' | '.' IDENT | '.{' field_init_list '}')*
primary         = INT | HEX_INT | BIN_INT | FLOAT | STRING | BOOL | IDENT | '---'
                | '.' IDENT | '.' '{' field_init_list '}'
                | '(' expr ')' | block | '#run' expr
field_init_list = field_init (',' field_init)*
field_init      = IDENT '=' expr | IDENT | expr
if_expr         = 'if' expr 'then' expr ('else' expr)?
                | 'if' expr block ('else' block)?
match_expr      = 'if' expr '==' '{' case_arm* else_arm? '}'
case_arm        = 'case' pattern ':' (stmt* | 'break' ';')
else_arm        = 'else' ':' stmt*
pattern         = '.' IDENT | INT | BOOL | IDENT
lambda          = '(' params? ')' ('->' type)? '=>' expr
args            = expr (',' expr)*
type            = '$' IDENT | 's32' | 'f32' | 'f64' | 'bool' | 'string'
                | 'Any' | 'Type' | '..' type | '[' expr ']' type | IDENT

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12. Open Questions

• Nested functions: Can functions be defined inside other functions?
• Operator overloading: Not shown — presumably no.
• Top-level expressions: Are bare expressions allowed at the top level or only declarations?